The ice ages had significant effects on the Earth's atmospheric conditions. They led to a decrease in the Earth's temperature, causing a drop in sea levels as water was locked up in glaciers and ice sheets. This also led to changes in the distribution of plants and animals, with many species moving to warmer areas. Additionally, the ice ages affected the composition of the atmosphere, with lower levels of carbon dioxide during glacial periods.

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During the 1800s, scientists came to the consensus that the Earth had experienced a number of ice ages in which large parts of the planet had been covered in ice sheets. During the last glacial maximum, the location of what is now Boston had more than a full kilometer of ice above it. Toronto had two kilometers. Montréal had more than three. The southernmost edges of the North American ice sheet were in northern Kentucky and West Virginia.

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The ice ages had significant impacts on the Earth's water systems. They led to the formation of many of today's geographical features, including valleys, mountains, and lakes. The weight of the ice sheets also depressed the Earth's crust, causing changes in the flow of rivers and the formation of new water bodies. Additionally, the melting of ice sheets contributed to sea level rise, altering the coastline and leading to the creation of new islands and peninsulas. The ice ages also affected ocean currents, which in turn influenced climate patterns.

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